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Buddhist arts in Indonesia

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Indonesia, as other Southeast Asian countries, was also strongly influenced by Indian art and culture from the 1st century. At that period, both Hinduism and Buddhism spread in Indonesia but the first to enter Indonesia was Hinduism and later Buddhism spread in the country. The spread of Buddhism was started with the trading activity, which began in the early 1st century on the maritime Silk Road. In the 8th -13th century, Sri Vijaya, who had adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, ruled western Indonesia, especially Sumatra and Java islands, but later on, the empire became more powerful and dominated most of the areas around the Southeast Asian peninsula through maritime power. With the expansion of the territory, Sri Vijaya Empire spread Mahayana Buddhist art to other areas. It is recorded that numerous statues of Mahayana Bodhisattvas from this period are believed to be strong refinement and technical sophistication.

It is recorded that in the 7th century, Chinese Buddhist monk, I-tsing paid a visit to the pilgrimage site in India. While on his journey, he witnessed powerful empire of Srivijaya. He learned that the empire had helped the people to know and understand about Buddhism in that region.

Another monk, Dharmakirti, born in around the 7th century in Sumatra became a revered scholar monk in Srivijaya. He later moved to India to become a teacher at the Nalanda Univerity and as well as the poet. He has done lots of notable works in the Buddhism sector and one of them is reinterpreted the work of Dignaga, the pioneer of Buddhist Logic. He was influential among Brahmins as well as Buddhists. His theories are normative in Tibet and are still studied in the present day as a part of the basic monastic curriculum.

With these references, it can be assumed the Srivijaya Empire was the largest Buddhist Empire ever formed in the Indonesian history.

Buddhist arts in Indonesia

It is assumed that the oldest Buddhist temple in Indonesia is Batujaya stupas complex situated in Karawang, West Java. It is estimated that the oldest relic in Batujaya was constructed in the 2nd century CE while the latest one was constructed in 12th century CE.

Another important Buddhist monument in Indonesia is Borobudur temple located in central Java. This temple is regarded as the largest Buddhist structure in the world. It is believed that the temple is built around 780 - 850 AD. The design of this temple is based on the Buddhist concept of the universe. Borobudur is decorated with long series of bas-reliefs. Mandala temple, another Buddhist temple in central Java houses 505 Antique Buddha statues in seating posture. The temple also has unique bell-shaped stupa with Buddha statue inside of it. Central Java has another important Buddhist pilgrimage site, Sewu Temple. In this temple, statues of Bodhisattva, Tara, and Kinnara are installed with very graceful and serene expression. Along with the statues, there are bas-reliefs as well.

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In Sumatra, there also the Buddhist temples installed with antique Buddhist arts. The most famous temples are Muaro Jambi, Muara Takus, and Bahal temple. Apart from these temples, there are numerous statues or inscriptions from the earlier period of Indonesian Hindi-Buddhist Kingdoms.

The statues of Vairocana Buddha and Bodhisattva- Vajrapani, and Padmapani in Mendut temple are also fine examples from Sri Vijaya Empire. Another beautiful example of Javanese Buddhist art is the serene and delicate statue of Prajnaparamita which was created during the period of Singhasari Kingdom.

Even though Sri Vijaya Empire was powerful and was engaged in spreading Buddhism through Buddhist arts, most of the Buddhist arts were built during the Sailendra dynasty in Java.

Historical development of Buddhist art in Cambodia

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In the present context, Cambodia's state religion is Theravada Buddhism but this was not in the past. If we look at the history then we will definitely get the ideas that the Cambodia has under went through several different religions. At first, they practiced animism and later on with the construction of ancient silk trade route they followed Hinduism and Buddhism. It was recorded that the state was strongly influenced by the Indian art and culture which resulted in the change in the religion - Buddhism and as well as the construction of different antique Buddhist arts - statues, murals, etc. This was also possible due to the messenger sent by Ashoka, the great with the objective to promote and spread wisdom and knowledge of Buddha. It was noted that Buddhism spread in Cambodia through two different streams. In the earlier period, Mahayana Buddhism spread here along with the Hindu influences during the period of Funan dynasty. Later, in the 13th century the second stream of Buddhism, Theravada Buddhism entered here during the Angkor Empire. In between this two religion, Cambodia was ruled by series of Hindu kings with occasional Buddhist kings- Jayavarman I of Funan, Jayavarman VII, and Suryavarman I. Therefore Cambodia had been ruled by several kings with different religions but they were co-existed peacefully throughout Cambodian lands.

Historical development of Buddhist art in Cambodia

In the 3rd -6th century, Cambodia was ruled by Funan kingdom. Actually, it was the capital city and the kingdom was expanded into Burma and in the south Malaysia. As other south Asian countries were under the influence of Indian Gupta tradition, Cambodia was also influenced by the political and cultural aspects of India. Hence antique Buddha arts that were constructed during that period were no different from the Buddhist arts that were found in ancient India. As time passed by the Buddhist arts were localized by the local artists.

In the 9th -13 century, during the rule Hindu Khmer Empire, there was constructed many arts and images of Hindu deities but later along with Mahayana Buddhist dominated the vast area. This resulted in the construction of sculpture of Buddha and Bodhisattvas as well. It is recorded that under the Khmer Empire alone, more than 900 temples were built-in Cambodia and in neighboring areas. Major Buddhist temple complex was built in Angkor, a capital city which was at the center of development in that period. However, many antique Buddha statues and antique Buddhist arts were stolen due to organized looting. The unique features of Khmer Buddhist art manage to express intense spirituality through divinely beaming expressions, in spite of spare gestures and slender lines. This type of activities supports that there was religious tolerance in Cambodia in the earlier period which helped to developed Buddhist art and as well as spreads Buddhism even during the rule of Hindu kings.

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Type of Khmer Art

As we already know that Khmer dynasty actually follows Hindu ideology since they were also influenced by Indian civilization. The artist basically follows stone carving techniques evolved in Indian civilization but later they developed their own unique Khmer style. The dynasty also experiences conversion in religion when some of the Kings converted into Buddhism. Therefore the Khmer dynasty provided a unique Khmer Hindu art as well as Khmer Buddhist art. The unique Khmer Hindu art includes the sculpture of Hindu deities such as Lord Shiva, Vishnu, Brahmans, Ganesh and many other gods and goddesses, as well as Hindu mythical monsters such as the serpent nags, the demon Kali, and the mythical lions. Khmer Hindu art also portrayed the epics of Hindu myths such as Mahabharata and Ramayana in large sculptures.

The Buddha statues were appeared and enshrined in many temples only in the later centuries of the Khmer dynasty. Among the statues, the most astounding Buddha statues are found in Angkor Thom (Bayon). The magnificent Buddha statues constructed in this area is four-faced Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara sculptured on fifty towers. Apart from the Buddha statues installed in Bayon, there are other sculptures also which portrays the important life events.

Buddhist arts and Architecture of Temples in Thailand

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As other south Asian countries, Thailand was also under influence of India's Gupta tradition. This influences can be seen in their art and culture. The earlier antique Buddhist arts were constructed according to this form of art. As time passed by, the Mon Kingdom of Myanmar expanded and influenced nearby areas.

If we look at the history of Mon kingdom, it is recorded that Mon Kingdom was converted to Buddhism at around 200 BCE. Along with the conversion, the arts and culture were also transferred and acculturation was observed. Hence, there were lots of Buddhist arts constructed in Myanmar and later they localized the art form according to their culture and community. The new form of art was established.

While the Mon Kingdom was expanding, their art and culture were also influencing nearby areas. These influences were seen in Thailand also. The antique Buddhist arts - statues, murals, architectures, etc.- based on Gupta tradition and the Mon Kingdom were constructed during 1st to 7th centuries.

In the 9th century, the influence of Gupta tradition and the Mon Kingdom were diminished and rose the influence of Cambodian Khmer art and Sri Vijaya art in the north and south respectively. These both form of art was based on Mahayana Buddhism. The unique feature of this art can be distinguished by the clear fluidness in the expression. The theme focuses on the characteristic of the Mahayana pantheon with multiple creations of Bodhisattvas.

In the 13th century, Theravada Buddhism was introduced in Thailand from Sri Lanka. King Ramkhamhaeng of Sukhothai played a great role to spread Theravada ideology of Buddhism. He requested senior monks from Sri Lanka to teach their views of Buddhism in Thailand. During this time, the ethnic Thai kingdom helped to form new Buddhist art that was highly stylized images in Thai Buddhism. Apart from the regular style, the images and arts were created in geometrical and almost abstract figures as well.

In the 14th - 18th centuries, during the Ayutthaya period, a new style of art was evolved. In this form of art, Buddha statues were represented in more stylistic manner. They were added with luxurious garments and jeweled ornamentations. Therefore, we can observe that many of the Thai Buddha statues and temples were gilded and on occasions, they are enriched with inlays.

The Thai Buddhist art was further developed during the reign of Thonburi and Rattanakosin Kingdom. As Bangkok was established as the royal center of the kingdom of Siam, the Thailand was filled with numerous Buddhist monuments - temples, large Buddha statues. These structures were constructed with the objective to demonstrate their devotion and as well as to showcase their authority.

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Architecture of Wats- Buddhist temples.

The Buddhist temples in Thailand has other buildings for specific purposes and is built according to two styles of architecture - Phutthawat and Sangkhawat architecture.

In Phutthawat architecture, there consists of several buildings with unique designs like-

• Chedi- stupa in the form of a bell-shaped tower and includes relic chamber.
• Prang - the Thai version of Khmer temple towers
• Ubosot - the hall which is considered most sacred area of wat
• Wihan - a shrine hall that contains Buddha Statues. This hall is also use as assembly hall where people prays
• Mondop - a shrine with spired roof within a temple compound.
• Ho trai - the Buddhist library
• Sala - an open pavilion providing shade and a place to rest.
• Sala kan parian - a large hall meant for studying and saying afternoon prayers
• Ho rakhang - the bell tower

In Sangkhawat architecture, the temple compound also consists of living quarters for the monks along with other buildings - Ho rakhang, bell tower; Sala Kan Parian, hall; etc. In the earlier period, living quarters of the monks used to be a small structure built on stilts but in present times, there is a modern apartment building with small rooms for the monks.

In present context, Thailand is better known for the Theravada Buddhism and also the best pilgrimage site for the Buddhism since they are preserving the antique Buddhist art and at the same time they are constructing new statues of Buddha as well.

Buddhist art during aniconic and iconic period

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When Siddhartha Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment, he first taught his knowledge to his five disciples. Later along with other disciples, he wandered places and spread the knowledge and true meaning of life to different peoples. Gradually, people joined with him and became a monk. He gave the discourse on many topics. The knowledge had been transferred orally through one disciple to another. The knowledge was not recorded by any means. As time passed by, the teaching was then represented in the art forms in order to spread the knowledge and awareness about the life history of Buddha. This art form can be divided into two distinctive phases- Aniconic and iconic phase

Aniconic Phase

In the 2nd to 1st century BCE, the buddhist arts were made representing episodes of the Buddha's life and teachings. These arts took the form of votive tablets or friezes and were generally used as the decoration of stupas or Buddhist pilgrimage sites. In this phase, the Buddha was represented through symbols. He was never represented in the human form. As Digha Nikaya reports, this act was connected to one of the Buddha's saying that discouraged representations of himself after the extinction of his body. Since the artists were reluctant to represent Buddha anthropomorphically, they developed more sophisticated symbols to represent Buddha. The Buddha was then represented through symbols - empty throne, Bodhi tree, a riderless horse with a parasol floating above an empty space, Buddha's footprints, dharma wheel, etc. - in narrative scenes where other human figures would appear.

This form of art was also seen as late as the 2nd century CE in the southern parts of India. The antique Buddhist art, Mara's assault on the Buddha was the art form from Amaravati School which also is the example of Aniconic Buddhist art. Other examples are from Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya and frescoes at Sigiriya. It is recorded that the frescoes at Sigiriya are older than the Ajanta Cave paintings.

Iconic phase

In the south of India, Buddha was represented through symbols even after 1st century but in the north India, the artists were coming up with the different verse of art forms. It was in the north India where the anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha started. The anthropomorphic Buddha images were developed from two different areas, the region of Gandhara and the region of Mathura. The Gandhara is in present day North West frontier province in Pakistan and the Mathura in central northern India.

It is recorded that Gandharan art was the result of interaction with Greek culture. This interaction was possible due to the conquests of Alexander the Great in early 4th century CE. It is believed that this school of sculpture contributed artistic features in the image of Buddha. These are mainly wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes, and sandals, etc.

The art of Mathura tends to be based on a strong Indian tradition. The art by Mathura school included anthropomorphic representation of divinities such as the Yaksas along with the Buddha. This school of art contributed clothes covering the left shoulder of thin muslin, the wheel on the palms, the lotus seat, etc.

It was recorded that both the region strongly influenced each other. It is a matter of debate whether the anthropomorphic representation of Buddha was a result of the local evolution of Buddhist art at Mathura or a consequence of Greek cultural influence in Gandhara. Even though the Buddhism was spread through the art form, it was not included in music and dance.

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Later in the 4th-6th century CE, during the Gupta period, the new version of Buddha images of Mathura, pink sandstone sculptures, evolved. With the development of this art form, it was believed that the Buddhist art reaches a new height of fineness of execution and delicacy in the modeling. The art of the Gupta School was extremely influential almost everywhere in the Asian countries. With the development of silk trade route and maritime trade route, the art and culture strongly influence other parts of Asia, mainly south Asian countries. South Asian countries built the Buddha art - antique Buddha statues, fresco- at various locations but later these arts blended with their local art forms and hence lead to their own verse of Buddhist arts.

In the present time, the anthropomorphic representation of Buddha is created based on the different basis of Buddhism- Mahayana, Theravada - in particular.

Largest Buddhist temples of Indonesia: Borobudur

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Borobudur is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple located in Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia. It is considered as the world's largest Buddhist temple and greatest Buddhist monuments. The temple was designed in Javanese Buddhist architecture. This monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage.

Architectural design of Borobudur Buddhist temple

The temple, Borobudur is built as a single large stupa. It is built in such a way that when one views the temple from above then it looks like a gigantic Buddhist mandala. The temple has nine platforms which can be divided into two divisions on the basis of the nature of the design. The nine platforms are again topped by a central Buddha stupa. The six platforms in the lower section are square and the three platforms in the upper section are circular. The foundation of the temple, the first square, measures approximately 118 m on each side. The upper platform consists of 72 small Buddha stupas and a large stupa at the center. Each stupa is decorated with numerous ancient Buddhist arts which also contain Buddha statues. It is recorded that the temples' walls, balustrades were decorated with relief panels, approximately 2,672 in numbers and 504 Buddha Statues. Pilgrims visiting Borodubar are guided by the complex systems of staircase and corridors to reach the top platform. It is believed that each platform is represented one stage of enlightenment.

Symbolically, the temple is divided into three distinct divisions- Kamadhatu (the world of desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and Arupadhatu (the formless world). These three divisions are regarded as three realms of Buddhist cosmology. If we incorporate this ideology in the architecture of the temple, the base of the temple is Kamadhatu, the remaining five square platform is Rupadhatu and finally, the three circular platform and the topmost stupa is the Arupadhatu.

The structures for the platforms are metaphorically different. We can observe detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu and plain platforms in Arupadhatu. This signifies that in Rupadhatu, humans are attached to the materials and forms and in Arupadhatu, humans they don’t have any desires and are detached with the forms. They are in the process to gain nirvana.

While excavating in 1885, a hidden structure under the base was discovered accidentally. This hidden structure contains 160 reliefs and is believed to be the real kamadhatu. The reliefs depict mainly causal effect relationship. There is various thought regarding the base to be hidden. One of them is the original hidden base was incorrect according to the Vastu Shastra.

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Reliefs in Borobudur

Borobudur is constructed in such a way that it reveals the high level of architectural design. It is highly decorated at the base and is plain at the topmost part of the temple. The reliefs depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th century ancient Java. These are mainly of courtly palace life, hermits, and ordinary people in the village. The reliefs also depict temples, marketplace, flora, and fauna. Not only had the realistic figures, the reliefs also depicted religious, spiritual figures. The figures of asuras, devata, bodhisattvas, Buddha's life, etc. were also the central theme for the reliefs.

The important reliefs in Borobudur are

The law of Karma (Karmavibhangga)

This relief is depicted in the original hidden base. On the right part of this relief, it shows sinful act of killing and cooking turtles and fishes. On the left part, it shows those who lived by killing animals will be tortured in hell by being cooked alive, being cut, or being thrown into burning house.

The story of Prince Siddhartha and the birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)

The detailed pictures of preparations in the heaven, on the earth to welcome the Buddha is showed at the start of this relief in this 27 panels. In this series, the relief depicts each and every event in the life of prince until he becomes the Buddha, the enlightened one.

The stories of Buddha's previous life (Jataka) and other legendary persons (Avadana)

In this series of reliefs, the stories of Buddha about previous lives are portrayed in both human and animal forms. Avadanas are similar to Jatakas with little variations. In Avadanas the main figure is not the Bodhisattva himself, it is other legendary persons. Even though there are little differences, these two are included in the same series of reliefs.

Sudhana's search for the ultimate truth (Gandavyuha)

This 460 panels of relief portray Sudhana's tireless wandering in search of the highest perfect wisdom. This narrative relief clearly portrays the journey of Sudhana's search to understand supreme knowledge and ultimate truth which he acquires with the help of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra.

 

The History of Borobudur clearly shown that in the period of 14th century CE, Java experienced the decline of Hindu kingdoms and most of the Javanese convert to Islam. Hence, world largest Buddhist monastery was abandoned. It was only in 1814 CE, Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, British ruler of Java discovered this largest Buddhist monument. Since then Borobudur has been preserved through several restorations and was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Early Development of Buddhists Art in China

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Buddhism was spread in China around the 1st century CE. Along with the teachings of Buddha, Indian Buddhist arts were also accepted in many parts of China. These art forms were later fused with strong Chinese traits to form localized Buddhist art.

Development of Buddhists Art in various Dynasties of China

Han Dynasty

The Buddhism in China was spread in this dynasty. It is the matter of debate between the historians that through which route did the Buddhism introduced in China. Whether it was from maritime or through land route. But the recent findings have suggested that the Buddhism was introduced in China from north-west India and through land route. After entering into China, Buddhism blended with early Daoism and Chinese traditional esoteric arts and so did the iconography. Therefore the localized form of art was developed.

Northern Dynasty

In the period of 5th to 6th centuries, the northern dynasties build more symbolic and abstract modes of arts. Their style of arts was also said to be solemn and majestic. Since this art form was far more diverse from the objective of the original Buddhist art form, this led to a change towards more naturalism and realism. Hence it led to the expression of Tang Buddhist art. Some of the pilgrimage sites constructed in Northern Wei Dynasty art form that is still preserved in the present context are; Yungang Grottoes, Longmen Grottoes, Bingling Temple, etc.

Sui Dynasty

During the period of Sui dynasty, Buddhism had gained a strong foothold in China. Sui dynasty helped to unify the Buddhist art in China even though it was the shortest dynasty to rule. The dynasty paved the way for the Buddhist art in the succeeding era of the Tang dynasty.

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Tang Dynasty

Following Sui Dynasty, Buddha statues and Buddhist arts were evolved towards a lifelike expression unlike the art forms of Northern Dynasty. The reason behind these art form is due to influence of Gupta art form of India. Since numerous Chinese Buddhist monks traveled to India to learn teachings of Buddha, they were influenced by the art forms. When they returned their place, they began to continue the similar art form. These travels were possible due to the Tang dynasty's openness to foreign influences. But the foreign influences were perceived negatively towards the end of the Tang dynasty. In 845 CE, Wuzong, a Tang emperor outlawed all foreign religions in order to support the indigenous religion, Taoism. This decision greatly affects the flourish of Buddhism in China.

Song Dynasty

Under this dynasty, Chan Buddhism flourished for some centuries when Chan monasteries were great centers of culture and learnings. During this period, Chan monks painted Gongbi paintings in order to express the impact of enlightenment through their brushwork.

With the rise of Neo-Confucianism in the 12th century resulted in the criticism of these paintings. Therefore, the paintings were discarded and ignored. The school of Chan painting gradually diminished due to this event.

Qing Dynasty

In the early periods of Qing Dynasty, the emperors supported particular forms of Buddhism according to their beliefs and devotion. Shunzhi Emperor promoted Chan Buddhism while Kangxi Emperor promoted Tibetan Buddhism. However, Buddhist arts reached its height during the period of Qianlong Emperor. He ordered numerous religious works in Tibetan style. The artworks during this period were the fusion of Tibetan and Chinese artistic styles.

Qianlong Emperor also initiated a numerous large-scale construction projects. In 1744, he marked Yonghe Temple as Beijing's main Tibetan Buddhist monastery. He donated a various number of valuable religious paintings, antique Buddha statues, Buddhist inscriptions to the temple. Another project is Xumi Fushou Temple which houses Tibetan and Manchu artistic styles of Buddhist arts. The popularity of Tibetan Buddhism declined after the resignation of Qianlong Emperor in 1795.

Hence the Buddhist arts got its form and style in China through various dynasties.

Gandharan Buddhist Texts

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Gandharan Buddhist Texts are believed to be the oldest Buddhist manuscripts some of which preserved today at different libraries dates from the 1st century. These texts are written in Gandhari language. In the present context, the texts are preserved in the library, collections scattered around the world.

Brief history behind the fall of Buddhism in Gandharan region

With the continuous Buddhist activity from the period of Ashoka, the Great; Gandhara became the hub of Buddhist activity during the Kushan Dynasty. This period was golden era as the Gandharan art, architecture and culture were flourished to its high point. From this period onwards, the iconic Buddha Statues were also constructed. As time passed by the Kushan was invaded by Sassanid and Sassanid couldn't manage to take over the region. It ultimately falls into the hands of Kidarites (descendants of previous Kushans).

The Kidarites ruled the region up to the middle of the 5th century CE following the traditions of their predecessors, the Kushans. The Gandhara was then ruled by the White Huns. Since they adopted the Shivite faith, the region gave importance to Hinduism and slowly, the importance of Buddhism began to fade away.

As the region was ruled by the White Huns, the Buddhist arts, texts were not focused at all. They were stolen, transferred, and sold to people of other countries. That's why Gandharan Buddha statues and Buddhist arts and texts are scattered around the world. Seated Buddha Statue is currently housed in British Museum while standing Buddha statue in Tokyo Nation Museum.

The Buddhist texts were earlier sold to European and Japanese institutions, and individuals but now these are recovered and are studied by several universities.

Gandharan Buddhist Texts collections around the world

The British Library Collection

The British Library acquired around eighty Gandharan Texts fragments in 1994. These texts are believed to be from the first half of the 1st century CE which was written on birch bark and stored in clay jars. The texts were excavated from the western Pakistan where ancient monasteries of Gandhara were buried.

The manuscripts were written in the Gandhari language using the Khorosthi script. The collection contains a Dhammapada, discourse of the Buddha such as the Rhinoceros Sutra, avadanas and Purvayogas, commentaries and Abhidharma texts. The inscription on the jar and some textual evidence suggest that the texts may belong to the Dharmagupta School.

The Senior Collection

This collection of Gandharan Buddhist text was bought by a British collector, R. Senior. This collection consists of almost entirely of canonical sutras which were written on birch bark and stored in clay jars. The jar has an inscription which refers to Macedonian. It is believed that the senior scripts were written in the latter part of the first century CE or in the first half of the second century. Therefore, the senior texts are written later than the text preserved in the British Library collection.

The Schoyen collection

The texts within the Schoyen collection are written in birch bark, palm leaf, and vellum. These collections are believed to be found in the Bamiyan caves and dates from the 2nd to 8th century CE. Most of the texts are bought by a Norwegian collector, Martin Schoyen while few quantities are in possession of Japanese collectors.

The Schoyen collection includes fragments of a Canonical sutra, Abhidharma, Vinaya, and Mahayana texts. These texts are written in Brahmi scripts while some are written in Gandhari/ Kharosthi script along with Sanskrit.

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University of Washington

The University of Washington also preserves a Buddhist text written on birch bark which focuses on the Abhidharma tradition, and early commentary on the teachings of Buddha. The text is believed to be from the 1st or 2nd century CE.

The Khotan Dharmapada

The text was found near Khotan in Xinjiang, western China in 1892. The text contains Dhammapada which is written in the Gandhari language. Since the manuscript was broken, it was scattered to several parts of the world: especially Europe, Russia, and France. Some of the pieces were never found.

The Split collection

The origin of this collection is not clear. According to the reliable informants, the collection was found in a stone case in the Pakistan-Afghanistan border area. The collections were split and now is stored some parts in a Western collection, Government agency and other parts with the private owner. The text is written in Kharosthi language in birch barks, focuses on Mahayana Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra. The collection belongs from 75 CE, therefore, it is one of the oldest Buddhist texts.

Sri Lankan Stupa: A unique Buddhist Architectural design of Sri Lanka

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Stupas are one of the outstanding architectural design which is mainly used in the Buddhist community. In Sri Lanka, stupas are also called as dagobas and cetiyas. It is believed that the construction of Sri Lankan stupa was started with the introduction of Buddhism during the reign of King Devenampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura. The first ever stupa constructed was Thuparamaya which is situated at Mahamewna Park in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. Later on, numerous stupas were constructed and the biggest stupa that is built till now is Jetavanaramaya located at Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.

Nature of Sri Lankan Stupa

The construction of stupa is considered to be the acts of great merit. It is mainly because the stupa enshrine relics of Buddha and other higher level monks and at the same time it is also perceived as the hub to spread the wisdom and knowledge of Buddha. The stupa that was built over the period of time had the consistent design. Generally, the entrance to the stupa is placed outside of the stupa. The purpose to construct entrance outside of the stupa is to house Buddha relics at the center of the stupa. The stupa generally cover or painted with a coating of lime plaster. Along with the lime, other materials like clay, sand, pebbles, crushed seashells, sugar syrup, and white of egg, coconut water, plant resin, drying oil, glues, and saliva of white ants are also used to make the plaster. But the plaster combination changes with the requirements of the design. For example, the plaster used at Kiri Vehera includes small pebbles, crushed seashells mixed with lime and sand.

Parts of Sri Lankan Stupa

Normally while constructing the stupa, it is usually divided into six parts. They are as follows:

Pesavalalu: It is a berm on which the dome is constructed. The stupa consists of three circular berms at its base which gradually reduce in size.

Gharbaya: It is a hemispherical dome which is constructed above the berms. The middle or core part of the Gharbaya, a relic chamber or Dhathu garbhaya is built to enshrine the Buddha's relics. Along with the Buddha's relics, Buddha statues are also placed in the center of the Relic Chamber.

Hatharas Kotuwa: This part is just above the Gharbaya. It is three-dimensional rectangle or square in shape which also enshrines the relic of the Buddha.

Devath Kotuwa: it is also know was the cylindrical neck of the stupa which is built over the Hatharas Kotuwa. We can observe images of different deities carved on the surface.

Koth Kerella: it is the long conical spire which is built on the Devatha Kotuwa. It is observed as a circle, decreasing in its size, is placed on the top of the larger circle.

Koth: it is the topmost part of the stupa which is often called as "silumina" in Sinhala. It is usually made up of metal which is precious crystal or gemstone.

Along with these parts, sometimes the stupa is also decorated with Vahalkada and Chethiyagara. Vahalkada is the decorative design which is constructed at the four cardinal directions adjoining the stupa. Chethiyagara is the one-story building constructed around the stupa. The Chethiyagara serves the two purposes. One is to safeguard the main stupa while another one is to provide a place for the Buddha statues, stupa, and other various Buddhists arts that were built or collected from different places.

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Types of Sri Lankan Stupas

The ancient Sinhalese text, "Vijayantha Potha", it is mentioned that the stupas that were built in Sri Lanka were of various types that can be categorized according to the shape of the dome or body. These six types are as follows:

Dhanyakara: This type of stupa are of shape like the heap of paddy and its example is Kelaniya Stupa which is situated near to Colombo city.

Ghantakara: This type of stupa are of Bell shape and its example is Ambastala stupa located at Mihintale.

Bubbulakara: This type of stupa are of Bubble shape and its example is Ruwanweli Maha Seya located at Anuradhapura.

Ghatakara: This type of stupa is of shape like pot and its example is Situplavwa, Somawathiya located at Kataragama.

Padmakara: This type of stupa are of Lotus shape and its example are Vijayarama situated at Anuradhapura, Indikatu Seya situated at Mihintale.

Amlakara: This type of stupa is of shape like Nelli fruit. This type of stupa is only mentioned in the text but the real example is nowhere found in Sri Lanka.

Palandawakara: This type of stupa is of a shape like an onion and its example is Nadigamvila stupa.

Pali Canon

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The Pali Canon is the standard collection of Buddhists Pali scriptures, according to the Theravada Buddhists traditions. It is recorded that this scripture is the first known and most-complete extant early Buddhist canon. It was first composed in North India and was preserved orally. It was only after the fourth Buddhist Council, Sri Lanka, the teaching of Buddha was preserved in written form. Gradually the teachings of the Buddha was also translated into other languages like- Sanskrit, and regional Asian languages.

Historical development of Pali Canon

In the early history, the teachings of the Buddha was spread orally. Therefore, all the monks were enforced to memorize the teachings by heart and then deliver to their disciples. The memorization usually took place through communal recitations. But later a council was formed around the first century BCE. This formation changed the way of Buddhist monks. They began to write down the teachings in the Pali language. This job was done in the Alu Viharaya in the first century BCE. It then compiled as the Canon but most works are not specifically Theravadin. The canon also includes the teachings that the Theravadin orally preserved from the early period.

Contents of the Pali Canon

The Pali Canon includes three general categories taught by the Buddha, also known as Pitaka. Thus it is also known as the Tipitaka which includes- Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka. Vinaya Pitaka deals with the rules or discipline of the Sangha; Sutta Pitaka deals with the discourses and sermons of the Buddha; Abhidhamma Pitaka includes elaborated Buddhist doctrines also called systematic philosophy.

 

Vinaya Pitaka

As it is already mentioned, this category deals with the rules of the Sangha. These rules are mentioned through stories with clear explanations and analysis. The stories are based on the Buddha encountering various behavioral problems or disputes. Along with the stories, the rules were developed and shared in the Buddhist community. Vinaya Pitaka is further divided into three parts:

Suttavibhanga- includes basic code of rules for monks and nuns,

Khandhaka- includes other advanced rules explained in 22 chapters, and

Parivara- includes analysis of various points of view.

 

Sutta Pitaka

The second one is the Sutta Pitaka literally meaning basket of threads which consists of primary accounts of the Buddha's teachings. The Sutta Pitaka is further divided into five sub-divisions:

Digha Nikaya- includes 34 long discourses with the high proportion of debates and devotional materials.

Majjhima Nikaya- includes 152 medium-length discourses with high proportions of sermons and consultations.

Samyutta Nikaya- includes thousands of short discourses categorized into fifty groups by subjects, person etc. in fifty.

Anguttara Nikaya- includes thousands of short discourses arranged numerically from ones to elevens. It contains elementary teaching for ordinary people.

Khuddaka Nikaya- includes a miscellaneous collection of works in prose or verse.

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Abhidhamma Pitaka

The third one is the Abhidhamma Pitaka, literally meaning beyond the dhamma, is the collection of the texts which provides the scholastic explanation of Buddhist doctrines. This explanation is particularly about the mind, therefore it is sometimes referred to systematic philosophy. The Abhidhamma Pitaka is also further divided into seven divisions:

Dhammasangani- includes enumeration, definition, and classification of dhammas.

Vibhanga- includes analysis of 18 topics along with dhammasangani.

Dhatukatha- deals with interrelations between ideas from the previous two Canon- Vinaya Pitaka, and Sutta Pitaka.

Puggalapannatti- includes the explanations of the different types of the person which is numerically arranged from one to ten.

Kathavatthu- includes over 200 debates on points of doctrine.

Yamaka- includes 10 topics on the converse questions

Patthana- includes the analysis of 24 types of conditions.

 

Therefore the early two Canons are the works of the early Buddhist schools and often termed as early Buddhist texts. However, the Abhidhamma Pitaka is a strictly Theravada collection and has less common recognized by other Buddhist schools.

Other Buddhist Canons

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Pali Canon is the earliest sacred Buddhist Canon that was written in Pali language. Along with the Pali language, there are other Buddhist canons as well which were translated according to need and location. They are mainly Tibetan Buddhist Canon, Chinese Buddhist Canon, and Sanskrit Buddhist Literature. These are in some way the localized form of written scriptures of Buddha's teaching since it will be hard to understand Pali for all. So these kinds of localization are necessary.

Buddhist Canons other than Pali Canon

Tibetan Buddhist Canon

Tibetan Buddhist Canon is the list of sacred texts, Buddha's teachings and commentaries of Buddha's disciples, which is recognized by various sects of Tibetan Buddhism. Along with sutras and other Mahayana sources, the Tibetan Canon includes tantric texts as well. This canon was finally compiled in the 14th century by Buton Rinchen Drub. The Tibetan Buddhist Canon can be broadly divided into two categories: Kangyur and Tengyur.

Kangyur:

This canon consists of the works or the teachings of Buddha himself. The texts were translated from Sanskrit, Pali, and also from Chinese and other languages as well. The Kangyur is also divided into sections- Vinaya, Perfection of Wisdom Sutras, Avatamsaka, Ratakuta, and other sutras and tantras. The exact numbers of texts in the Kangyur are not fixed since there are numerous authors. Basically, authors take the responsibility for the removing and adding the texts that he considers important. In the current situation, there are about 12 versions of Kangyur text in Tibet which is named after the location where it was published. These Kangyurs are- Derge, Lhasa, Narthang, Cone, Peking, Urga, Phudrak, and Stog Palace versions. Apart from these versions, some canonical text has been found in Tabo Monastery and Dunhuang. The Kangyur contains around 943 texts in 100-108 volumes

Tengyur:

This canon consists of the works of the Buddha's disciples. This includes mainly commentaries, treatises, and Abhidharma works. The Tengyur contains 3626 texts in 224 volumes. Tengyur Canon can be categories as

Sutras consist of 1 volume of 64 texts.

Commentaries on the Tantras consists of 86 volumes with 3055 texts.

Commentaries on the Sutras consists of 137 volumes with 567 texts.

Commentaries on the Prajnaparamita consists of 16 volumes.

Madhyamika Treatises consists of 29 volumes.

Yogacara Treatises consists of 29 volumes.

Abhidharma consists of 8 volumes.

Miscellaneous texts of 4 volumes.

Vinaya Commentaries of 16 volumes.

Tales and Dramas of 4 volumes.

Technical Treatises of 43 volumes.

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Chinese Buddhist canon

Chinese Buddhist Canon refers to the Buddhist literature deemed canonical in Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese Buddhism. The Chinese Buddhist Canon includes Agama, Vinaya, and Abhidharma texts as well as the Mahayana Sutras and scriptures from Esoteric Buddhism.

The Chinese Buddhist Canon is developed in many versions in East Asia in different places and time. An early version is the Fangshan Stone Sutras which was developed in the 7th century and most used version is Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo which was named after Taisho era.

Sanskrit Buddhist Literature

Sanskrit Buddhist Literature refers to Buddhist texts which are composed in the classical Sanskrit or Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. Sanskrit Buddhist Literature was also translated from Pali Canon. As Johannes Bronkhorst argues that the adoption of Buddhist literature in Sanskrit is mainly due to the association with political prestige and power. In those days, the Buddhist viharas of India were sought after these things. The reputed viharas of India would only fulfill their desires only after if they develop the knowledge of Sanskrit and communicate with the more upper classes and royal courts. The use of Sanskrit still survives in the Newar Buddhism of Nepal and thus the majority of Sanskrit Buddhist manuscripts are still preserved there.

Huong Pagoda: a Buddhist temple complex at Vietnam

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Huong Pagoda is a Buddhist temple complex built into the limestone of Huong Tich Mountains, Vietnam. This temple complex is one of the sites of attraction not only for the Buddhist pilgrims but also for the tourists. The central attraction of this temple complex is the Perfume Temple, which is also known as Chua Trong or Inner Temple which is located in Huong Tich Cave.

Historical Background

Legend explains the site was discovered by a monk who meditated in this area. The monk then named the area after the name of sacred Tibetan mountain which is believed to be the place where Gautama Buddha practiced asceticism. Therefore the site holds the sacredness in itself. Regarding the construction of the buildings, it is believed that the first temple was a small structure on the current site of Thien Tru which existed during the reign of Le Thanh Tong in the 15th century. The inscriptions found in the area mention the building, stone steps and Kim Dung shrine dates to a late 17th century during the reign of Le Hy Tong. Throughout the time, some of the structures were damaged but were renovated and replaced. The original statue of Buddha and Boddhisattava, Quan Am (Avalokitesvara) were constructed in bronze in the mid-18th century. It was destroyed later in the year but was replaced with the statues in 1793. During the French and American wars, the temple complex was destroyed again but was renovated in different periods. The bell tower was rebuilt in the 1986 CE and the gate in 1994 CE.

Features of Huong Pagoda, a Buddhist Temple Complex

The Buddhist shrines and Temples are spread out in the limestone hills and tropical forests in the Huong Mountains. The most important of them are as follows.

Den Trinh

Den Trinh is also known as Den Quan Lon or Shrine of High-ranking Mandarin. It was built for one of the generals of Hung King. At the entrance of the shrine, it possesses a kneeling elephant statue on either side of the gate and it has a large ceremonial room inside the shrine.

Thien Tru Pagoda

This Pagoda is also known as Chua Ngoai or the outer Pagoda. The Pagoda houses a large statue of Quan Am Nam Hai. He is one of the forms of Boddhisattava Avalokhetishara. This Pagoda also houses a bell tower and the hall of the Triple Gem. Near the Pagoda, there also lies Thien Thuy stupa, a naturally occurring structure formed due to the result of erosion of a rocky hill.

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Giai Oan Pagoda

Gian Oan Pagoda is in between the Thien Tru Pagoda and Huong Tich cave. This Pagoda is also called Clearing Unjust Charges Pagoda. In this area, we can find a pond named Thien Nhien Thanh Tri or Natural Blue Pond. This pond is also called as Long Tuyen Well.

Huong Tich Cave

The main center of attraction of Huong Pagoda is the Huong Tich Cave. The mouth of the cave has the appearance like that of dragon's mouth while it’s open. The mouth of the cave is carved with Chu Nho characters. When these characters are translated then it means the foremost cave under the Southern Heavens. It is believed that these characters were carved in the mouth of the cave by the ruler Thinh Do Vuong Trinh Sam in the late 18th century. This cave houses the temple, Chua Trong and other statues. The largest statue among them is the Buddha statue dedicated to Gautam Buddha. Another statue is the statue of Quan Am. Both of this statue is made up of green stone. Along with this statue, there are statues of Arhats and other figures.

Other sites in the Huong Pagoda complex are Thien Son Pagoda, Thuyet Kind Grotto, Phat Tich Temple, and Vong Temple.

Belum Caves

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Belum Caves is the largest and longest cave system which is open to the public on the Indian subcontinent. The caves are located near Belum village in Kolimigundla Mandal of Kurnool District in the state of Andhra Pradesh. This cave is also known for its speleothems, such as stalactite and stalagmite formations. The cave includes long passages, galleries, spacious caverns with fresh water and siphons. It is believed that the formation of this cave was due to the constant flow of underground water over the course of tens of thousands of years. The cave system reaches its deepest point, Pataalanganga, which is 46 m deep from entry level. The total length of Belum caves system is 3,229 m which makes this cave second largest natural cave located at the Indian subcontinent.

As the cave was excavated, it was found that the caves include Buddhists arts and relics which are now housed in Museum at Ananthapur. Archaeological survey of India also found remnants of vessels of the pre-Buddhism era and these remnants are believed to be from 4500 years BCE. Therefore, the site is historically important.

Features of Belum Caves

Pillidwaram: Literally, pillidwaram means cat’s gate. The gate is in the shape of a lion’s head which is formed naturally.

Kotilingalu Chamber: This chamber in the Belum caves have numerous stalactite formations. These formations are similar to the Shiva lingams. Since there are numerous stalactite formations, it provides a surrealistic look. Among the formations, there is one huge pillar formed due to stalactite and stalagmite joining together.

Patalaganga: Patalaganga is a small perennial stream located in the Belum cave. This stream flows from the southeast to northwest and disappears into the depths of the earth. The local people residing around that locality believes that the stream is headed towards a well at the Belum village. The village is located 2 km away from the Belum Cave.

Saptasvarala cave or Musical Chamber: Saptasvarala cave is the chamber of seven notes. The natural stalactite formations in this chamber help to produce the musical sounds when these are struck with a wooden stick or knuckles. This chamber was opened to the public in 2006.

Dhyan Mandir or Meditation Hall: The meditation hall is near to the entrance of this cave. The meditation hall is equipped with a natural formation which looks like a bed with a pillow to recline. There is a general belief that this chamber was used by Buddhist Monks for meditation purposes. While excavating, this meditation hall was full of Buddhist arts and relics. With the purpose of preservation, these relics were transferred to the museum at Ananthapur.

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Thousand Hoods: This part of Belum Cave has amazing stalactite formations on the ceiling. The shape of this formation looks like the cobra has opened its hood. There are numerous formations on the ceiling which gives beautiful looks.

Banyan Tree Hall: This part of the Belum Cave has a huge pillar with stalactites hanging from the ceiling. This stalactites formation looks like a Banyan Tree with its aerial roots when one sees from below. The structure is popularly known as Voodalamari among local people since it looks like a Banyan Tree with its aerial roots, hanging from the branches.

Mandapam: Mandapam is the huge area inside the cave. This area is equipped with magnificent stalactite structures on either side. Therefore it resembles the pillar supporting the ceiling.

Buddha statue: Another remarkable feature of Belum Cave is the Buddha statue on a hillock near the caves. The height of this statue is 40 ft which is built on the lotus flowers. The statue of Buddha is seated above the lotus flower with Dhyani mudra by the left hand and Abhaya mudra by the right hand.

Pandavleni caves

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Pandavleni caves, also known as Nasik caves, is located about 8km south of the center of Nashik (or Nasik), Maharashtra, India. These caves are also known as Pandu Lena or Tri Rashmi Leni. Pandavleni caves include 24 caves which are carved between 1st century BCE and 3rd century CE. It is recorded that additional sculptures were also added in these caves during the 6th century reflecting changes in Buddhist devotional practices. These caves are early examples of Indian rock-cut architecture which also represents Hinayana Buddhist tradition. Among these caves, there is only one cave meant for chaitya and others are viharas. The caves served as a vihara contains sculptures of King, farmers, merchants; Buddhist relics and Buddhist arts- images of Buddha and Bodhisattva. The caves served as Chaitya has a particularly elaborated facade.

Features of Pandavleni Caves

The caves were carved in a long line on the north face of a hill called Tri Rasmi. Therefore, it is also known as Tri Rashmi Leni. The visitors in this cave are not only fascinating about the inscriptions belonging to the reign of Satavahana and Kshaharatas or Kshatrapas but also due to the Rock-Cut architecture of the 2nd century CE.

Cave no 1: This cave was planned to use as Vihara with four columns between pilasters in front of a narrow verandah. The cave has no inscriptions and is the uncompleted cave.

Cave no 2: This cave is a small excavation which has two cells at the back. The walls nearly covered with sitting and standing Buddha statue with attendant chauri-bearers.

Cave no. 3: This cave is one of the most important and the largest caves found in the Pandavleni cave complex. It was dedicated and built to Samdha in the 2nd century BE by Queen Gotami Balasiri, mother of deceased Satabashana king Gautamiputra Satakarni, and contains numerous important inscriptions.

Cave no 4: This cave has no inscriptions but frieze is carved with the rail pattern which has a considerable height. The veranda has the octagonal pillars in which an elephant with female riders is carved in.

Cave no. 6: This cave has an inscription which mentions the dedication of a merchant to the Samgha.

Cave no 7: The inscription in this cave explains that the cave was the gift by a female ascetic named Tapasini to the Samgha.

Cave no 8: The inscription in this cave explains that the cave was a gift from a fisherman name Mugudasa.

Cave no 10: This cave is one of the important cave which was built by Indo-Scythian Western Satraps ruler Nahapana in 120 CE. Therefore this cave is also known as Nahapana Vihara. This cave consists of six inscriptions of the family of Nahapana. The cave has five benched cells on each side and six in the back. The back wall of this cave is carved with the figure of Bhairava, a Hindu deity. There is also the same god carved outside of the veranda.

Cave no 11: This cave is at a higher level than that of cave no 10. The front room’s back wall of the cave is carved with a sitting figure and attendants on a lion throne and on the right-end wall a fat figure of Amba on a tiger with attendants, and an Indra on an elephant.

Cave no 12: This cave has an inscription which mentions that the cave is the gift of a merchant named Ramanaka.

Cave no 14: this cave is a group of chambers which consists of three cells. The first has an inscription of a certain Hamanaka, mentioning an endowment of 100 Karshapana for a garment to the ascetic residing in it during the rains. The other two has no inscriptions.

Cave no 15: This cave is the only one which houses inner shrines of a two-storeyed cave. Both floors have on each of the three walls a sitting Buddha image along with other attendants.

Cave no 17: This cave was built by a devotee of Greek descent in around 120 CE. This cave is the third largest cave on this hill. The cave houses standing the image of Buddha on the wall of the back aisle. The height of this image is 18.5 ft long. There are other metallic images also.

Cave no 18: This cave was built in a chaitya design. This chaitya cave is only one in this group of caves which was built in much earlier date. The height of the chaitya in this cave is 6 ft 3 inches and the diameter is 5.5 ft.

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Cave no 19: This cave is also known as Krishna vihara and is located at the lower level than the chaitya cave. This cave has an inscription of king Krishna of the Satavahanas which is oldest known inscriptions which dates to 100-70 BCE.

Cave no 20: This cave is one of the large Vihara in this series. The hall has the width of 37.5 feet at the front to 44 ft at the back and 61.5 ft deep. On either side, there is a gigantic dvarapala of height 9.5 ft. The cave houses other deities along with Buddha statues of height 10 ft.

Cave no 23: This cave is a large, irregular cave housing three shrines. The shrines and the compartments on the walls of this cave are filled with Buddha statues along with statues of Padmapani and Vajrapani. Among the Buddha statue, there is also a reclining Buddha statue in the cave.

Cave no 24: This is a small Bhikkhu’s house which consists of the veranda with two small chambers at the back. The friezes are ornamented with a string of animal figures along with conventionalized forms of the symbol of dharma.

Bojjannakonda and Lingalakonda caves

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Bojjannakonda and lingalakonda are two Buddhist caves which are situated near a village called Sankaram in Andhra Pradesh, India. It is believed that the caves are constructed between the 4th and 9th century A.D. It was the period when all the Buddhism ideology- Hinayana, Mahayana, and Vajrayana flourished at Sankaram.

The Bojjannakonda and Lingalakonda caves lie on the same hill but in different directions. Bojjannakonda lies is the eastern side of the hill while Lingalakonda lies on the western side of the hill. The hills contain numerous monolithic stupas, rock-cut caves, chaityas and monasteries making the hill one of the most remarkable places for Buddhist shrines in Andhra Pradesh.

Features of Bojjannakonda and Lingalakondai caves

Bojjannakanda caves

It is believed that around 2000 years ago, Buddhist monks used to worship on the hill since it was known as Buddhuni Konda. Literally, it means the hill of the Buddha and in due course of time, it began to know as Bojjannakonda.

As it is already mentioned, the Bojjannakonda cave lies on the eastern side of the hill. In this side of the hill, there are a large group of monolithic stupas, which surrounds the Maha stupa of which the dome is constructed of brick. Among them, two of the brick stupas has the stone relic in the form of miniature stupas.

There are six rock-cut caves on this side of the hill. Among them, some of the caves have sculptured panels which consist of seated Buddha statue and his attendants. The main cave has sixteen pillars out of which five of the pillars are broken. The main cave houses a monolithic stupa in the center. Just above of this stupa, on the ceiling, has a carving of a chhatra or umbrella which was originally connected with the top of the stupa. But in the present context, the shaft is lost. Above of this cave, there is an upper storey which houses Buddha statue.

It is recorded that in the foothills of this hillock, an image of goddess Hariti is built.

The place was excavated in the early 20th century with the support of Alexander Rim. This ancient site's unique feature includes the Buddhist arts and architectures from all the three phases of Buddhism- Hinayana, Mahayana, and Vajrayana.

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Lingalakonda caves

On the western side of the hill, there consists of series of caves popularly known as Lingalakonda caves. These caves consist of a large number of rock-cut small stupas forming the shape of a ridge. It is recorded that when the excavation was conducted, a large number of antique Buddha statues and Buddhist relics were recovered. This excavation was conducted with the support from Mr. Alexander Rea in the early 20th century.

It was also recorded that pottery, seals, terracotta inscribed tablets, terracotta beads, and terracotta figures were also excavated. The gold coins on Samudra Gupta of Gupta dynasty, copper coins of Eastern Chalukya King Vishuvardhana surnamed Vidhamasiddhi and a lead coins were also recovered. These artifacts provided the information that the early Buddhist settlements in these areas, dates from 2nd and 9th century CE.

It has been recorded that as Buddhism gained popularity in the ancient time, it began to spread and there was constructed an educational hub in many regions with the main objective to spread the teachings of Buddha. Therefore, the educational hubs and viharas for monks were also seen at Thotlakonda, Bavikonda, Pavurallakonda, around Visakhapatnam. These areas were flourished between 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE but gradually faded out with the rise of Hinduism. That's the main reasons why most of the Buddhist temple and caves were unknown and were needed to do the excavate the areas.

Buddhist temple in India: Lalitgiri

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Lalitgiri is a major Buddhist temple in India which is also popularly known as Naltigiri. This Buddhist complex is situated in the Cuttack district of Odisha, India. This Buddhist complex houses major Buddha stupas, Buddha statues, and monasteries. It is regarded as one of the oldest sites in the Odisha and a part of Diamond Triangle. The other two complexes of Diamond Triangle are Ratnagiri and Udayagiri.

Excavation Information

It was M.M. Chakravarty, the then Sub Divisional Officer in Jaipur who first identified the archaeological antiquities from the Diamond Triangle sites in 1905 CE. In 1927 and 28 CE. R.P. Chanda of Indian Museum in Kolkata documented the site and in 1937 the site was officially declared a protected monument by the central government. Again in 1977, 1985 and 1991 excavations were done at the site with the initiation of Utkal University, and Bhubaneswar CIrcle of the Archaeological Survey of India. The findings concluded that the Lalitgiri maintained a continuous cultural sequence starting from the post-Mauryan period till 13th century AD.

Art and Architectural Remains at Lalitgiri, a Buddhist temple in India

The excavation project carried out at the Lalitgiri have unearthed several buried things. It can be categorized as follows:

Stupas

The excavation has unearthed remnants of a large stupa on the hill which housed two rare stone casket with the relics of Buddha. It was learned that these stone caskets were made up of khondalite stone which had three other boxes made up of steatite, silver, and gold respectively. The golden casket contained a relic or dhatu in the form of a small piece of bone.

Along with this large stupa, an east facing stupa was also uncovered. This chaitya was built of bricks which were 33m in height and 11 m wide with 3.3 m thick walls. It was recorded that this stupa contained a circular stupa at the center.

Monastery

The excavation team unearthed remnants of four monasteries at the site. The first monastery which was facing east had a two-storey structure. This monastery measures 36 sq. m. and has an open space of 12.9 m square at the center. It was recorded that this was dated to 10th-11th century CE.

The second monastery was excavated in the northern extremity of the hill. It was believed that this monastery was built when Buddhism was losing its importance in Lalitgiri.

The third monastery which was excavated at the site faced south-east direction and has dimensions of 28 by 27 m. Like the first one, this monastery has an open space of 8 sq. m. and represents the end stages of apsidal chaitya.

The fourth monastery is measured 30 sq. m. in size and houses many large sized Buddha heads. The monastery also houses a terracotta monastic seal with the inscription Sri chandraditya bihara samagra arya vikshu sanghasa which dated to the 9th-10th century CE.

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Images of Buddha, consort, and Bodhisattvas

It has been recorded that the numerous meditative Buddha statues unearthed at the site belong to the period when Mahayana Buddhism flourished at the site. Along with these Images of Buddha, Images of Tara, Harati, and Amitabha Buddha have been excavated in the Lalitgiri. The Images or Tara were in the form of Tara Kurukulla while the Amitabha Buddha and Harati were portrayed in seating posture.

The team also excavated gold pendant, silver jewelry, stone tablets with imprints of Ganesha and Mahisasurmardini, a seal matrix-cum-pendant, and a small statue of Avalokiteshvara.

Inscriptions

The excavation team also found potsherds which had an inscription. It was mentioned that the site was dated from the post-Mauryan period to 8th-9th century CE. This information indicates that majorly Buddhist monks belonging to the Hinayana and Mahayana sects lived in Lalitgiri. Later, the monks belonging to Vajrayana also settled in this site during the reign of Bhaumakaras (9th-10th-century CE.)

Bhaja Caves

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Bhaja Caves is a group of 22 rock cut caves built during the 2nd century BC. This cave is also known as Bhaje caves and is located in Pune district, near Lonavala, Maharashtra. The Caves belongs to the Hinayana Buddhism sect in Maharashtra. The cave consists of numerous stupas and the most prominent excavation is chaityagrha- cave XII. This cave is regarded as a good example of the early development of wooden architecture with a vaulted horseshoe ceiling. Another notable cave is Cave no. XVIII which has a pillared verandah in front and is adorned with unique reliefs.

Architecture of Bhaja Caves

The architectural design of Bhaja Caves shares with the designs of Karla Caves. Among the monuments carved in the caves, Chaityagriha is the largest shrine with an open, horseshoe-arched entrance. The Chaitrya has unique reliefs which are based on the Indian mythology. The chaitygraha also includes Buddha statues along with the inscription which mentions the name of the donor, Maharathi Kosikiputa Vihnudata. The inscriptions also mention that the caves have been there for at least 2200 years. All total, there are eight inscriptions in the caves.

The caves also include a waterfall near the last cave which provides water during the monsoon season. The water from the waterfall falls into a small pool at the bottom.

Some of the Notable caves in Bhaja Caves

Cave VI: This cave is irregular vihara which has two cells on each side and three on the back side. The windows are beautifully ornamented.

Cave IX: This cave is similar to cave VIII at Pandavleni Caves. This cave has a rail pattern ornament with broken animal figures. This cave also consists of verandah on the frontal side.

Cave XII: This cave consists of the chaitya hall which is the earliest surviving chaitya hall constructed in the second century BCE. The hall consists of the stupa and has the wooden columns slope inwards supporting the roof. The walls of this hall are polished in the Mauryan style. The hall has a large horseshoe-shaped window which was set above the arched doorway. The chaitya in the hall is 26 ft 8 inches wide and 59 ft long, with the semi-circular apse at back, and having aisle 3 ft 5 inches wide, separated from the nave by 27 octagonal shafts.

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Cave XIII: This cave is 30 ft long and 14.5 ft deep. This Cave also has rail pattern and the material mainly used in this cave is wood.

Cave XIV: this cave is facing towards the northern side which is 6 ft 8 inches wide and 25.5 feet deep, with 7 cells. This cave includes stone benches, square windows and stone beds.

Cave XV: this cave is a small Vihara which is 12.5 ft wide and 10 ft deep. This cave has two semi-circular niches and a bench on the right side.

Cave XVII: this cave is also a small vihara which is 18.5 ft long and 12.5 ft deep with 5 cells. The cave has two inscriptions.

Cave XIX: this cave is a monastery with a verandah. The door has guardian figures on both sides. This cave has an imprint of Hindu god Surya riding a chariot and Indra riding on an elephant.

Stupas in Bhaja Caves

Along with the caves, the site also consists of notable stupas which are located inside and outside of the site. The five of them are inside and nine of them are outsides. The stupas contain relics of resident monks who died at Bhaja. The Three stupas have the names of three monks- Ampinika, Dhammagiri, and Sanghdina- who probably have died there and these stupas contain the relic of these venerated monks. Another stupa displays stavirana Bhadanta.

Jade Buddha Temple

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Jade Buddha Temple is a Buddhist temple situated in Shanghai, China. The temple was established in the late 19th century, initially housed two Buddha statues made up of Jade which was imported from Burma. The statues are in sitting and reclining position. The statue with sitting position has the height of 1.95 m. In addition to this, the temple has larger reclining Buddha statue made up of marble. This statue was donated by Singapore.

Historical background of Jade Buddha Temple

It was recorded that a Buddhist monk named Huigen set off for the pilgrimage to Tibet via Mt. Wutai and Mt. Emei. After Tibet, he then visited Burma and was gifted five Buddha statues made up of jade by an overseas Chinese resident in Burma, Chen Jun-Pu. Huigen then transported two of the statue to Jiang-wan, Shanghai. The temple was then built with the help of donations. This temple was uprising during the early 20th century and later on, the statue was moved to Maigen Road.

Later the Buddhist monk, Kechen also built new Buddhist temple with the support from Sheng Xuanhuai, a senior official in the Qing imperial court. They built houses with thatched roofs at Yizhou Pond by the Zhuanghuabang River in the northeast of Shanghai. The constructions took about ten years, from 1918-1928. After completion, Kechen also invited Reverend Dixian from Mt. Tiantai to give a lecture on Buddhism in a grand ceremony.

The people have observed various events in the temple complex. In 1956 BCE, Shanghai Buddhist Association organized the ceremony to celebrate the 2500th anniversary of the Buddha's enlightenment. Likewise, in 1966 BCE, during the Cultural Revolution, the monks made a living by selling handicrafts. In 1983, the Shanghai Institute of Buddhism was established at the temple under the Shanghai Buddhist Association. In 1985, After the return of the monk Zhizhi Xuan and others from the trip, regular scripture lectures, meditation and other features of temple life was resumed.

Architectural features of the Temple

The temple layout can be categorized into Chamber of Four Heavenly Kings, Grand Hall, and Jade Buddha Chamber.

Chamber of Four Heavenly Kings

This chamber is located on the southern edge of the temple. The chamber of Four Heavenly Kings contains the statues of Maitreya Buddha, Skanda, and the Four Heavenly Kings. These icons represent favorable circumstances.

Grand Hall

The Grand Hall is also popularly known as the Great Hall which contains various statues in the different theme. The grand hall consists of statues of three golden Buddhas- Gautam Buddha, Amitabha Buddha, and the Bhaisajyaguru Buddha. Among these Buddha statues, Gautam Buddha is placed in the middle while Amitabha is in the left and Bhaisajyaguru is in the right.

The hall also houses statues of Gods of the Twenty Heavens which is glided with gold. These statues are placed on the eastern and western sides of the Grand Hall.

The hall also houses statues of 18 Arhats which is also glided with gold and stands in two groups of nine. The other statues are the statues of Guanyin, Sudhana, and his 53 teachers. The statue of Guanyin stands at the northern entrance to the Great Hall and statue of Sudhana is placed next to Guanyin. The statues of the 53 teachers have placed above of them.

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Jade Buddha Chamber

This chamber housing Jade Buddha statue is located in the northern section of the Temple of the second floor. This chamber houses Jade Buddha statue which was imported from Burma. The chamber also houses additional Buddhist sculptures.

Recent additions

The Public restaurant is built on level two at the eastern edge of the temple and is equipped with its own street entrance.

Japanese Buddhist Architecture

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Japanese Buddhist Architecture mainly includes the architecture of Buddhist temples which was influenced by the architectural styles from China. Earlier, the attempts were to make the Buddhist architecture as original as it was looked in China but gradually the buildings were localized due to the problems posed by local weather and Japanese tastes.

Historical development of Japanese Buddhist Architectures

The development of Japanese Buddhist Architectures can be broadly divided into the following periods

Asuka and Nara Periods

The Buddhism and the Buddhist architecture were literally imported from China via Korea in the 6th century. As the Buddhism was introduced in Japan, the Buddhist temples were started to build in the country but due to the hostile behavior of supporter of the local kami, the buildings were no longer stand by itself and there are no written records of the architectural styles of that period.

But later the Buddhism got its support from the Prince Shotoku. He ordered the construction of Buddhist temple, Shitennoji in Osaka (593) and Horyu-ji near his palace in Ikaruga (603). During this period, the temple layout was strictly prescribed and followed. This act helped to maintain the architectural style uniform. In this period the main gate was constructed facing south and the most sacred area surrounded by a semi-enclosed roofed corridor accessible through a middle gate. The temple complex also contains the main hall with Buddha statue, and pagoda which houses sacred objects. The other structures include a lecture hall, a belfry, a sutra repository, priests and monks quarters and bathhouse.

Nara Period observed quite different architectural development. The temple structures, such as pagodas and main halls, had increased significantly in size. The placement of the pagoda moved to a more peripheral location and the roof bracketing system increased in complexity as roofs grew larger and heavier.

In the 8th century, Kami worship and Buddhism was reconciled and thus shrine-temples were founded to support both groups. This coexistence of Buddhism and Kami worship continued until the Kami and Buddhas Separation Order of 1868.

Heian period

In this period, Buddhism was more localized with addition Japanese elements, local beliefs. With this localization Fujiwara no Michinaga and retired Emperor Shirakawa erected new temples and hence developed Jodo-Kyo architecture and the new Wayo architectural style.

In the early period, Rokushu architectonic traditions were also observed. This style of architecture was developed only in the plains but in mountainous areas, it was an original style. The architectural style was characterized by the simplicity which uses local resources like natural timber.

The architecture includes a main hall which is generally divided into two parts; an outer area for novices and an inner area for initiates. The roof is a hip and gable which covers both the areas. The floor is little raised which is made up of wood.

Kamakura and Muromachi periods

In Kamakura period, Daibutsu style and the Zen style of architectural design emerged. The first style represents the antithesis of the simple and traditional Wayo style while the Zen style characterized as earthen floors, subtly curved pent roofs, cusped windows, and paneled doors.

In Muromachi periods, the above-mentioned style of architecture was often combined to form the new style of architecture, Eclectic style of architecture.

Other notable periods in the history of the development of Japanese Buddhist architecture were Azuchi-Momoyama and Eddo periods, and Meiji period. In these periods the Buddhist architectures were also developed accordingly focusing on the local beliefs and use of local resources.

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General features of Japanese Buddhist Architectures

Actually, the architectural styles of Japanese Buddhist buildings were imported from China and various other Asian countries. With time, these architectural styles were localized in order to suit the Japanese tastes, and the local resources and weather.

Japanese architects have used a locally available material, mainly wood in various forms. It is hard to see the buildings that use stones except for certain specific uses as in temple podia and pagoda foundations.

Almost all the buildings share the common general structure: columns and lintels to support a large and gently curved roof. The walls are also paper thin, which is often movable. We can notice that the arches and barrel roofs are completely absent. It is recorded that gable and eave curves are gentler that in China and columnar entasis limited.

The most impressive component of the Japanese Buddhist architecture is the roof. The roof has the slightly curved eaves that extend far beyond the walls, covering verandas. These oversize eaves give the interior a characteristic dimness, which contributes to the temple's atmosphere. The building normally consists of a single room at the center called Moya.

As it is already mentioned that the inner walls are paper thin and often movable, the room size can be modified as per required. Hence, the large, single space offered by the main hall can, therefore, be altered according to the need.

Sometimes the architecture is shared by both sacred and profane building structures. Therefore, these architectural features made it easy to convert a lay building into the Buddhist temple. The popular Horyu-Ji Buddhist temple in Nara Prefecture is the excellent example. This building was once used to be the mansion for the noblewoman.

Kizil Caves

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Kizil Caves are excellent examples of Buddhist rock-cut caves situated in Baicheng County, Xinjiang, China. The caves are located on the northern bank of the Muzat River 65 Kilometers west of Kucha. It is believed that the caves are the earliest major Buddhist cave complex that was built between the period of the 3rd and 8th centuries in China.

Features of Kizil Caves

In Kizil, it is recorded that there is almost 236 cave carved into the cliff which stretches from east to west for a length of 2 km. Among these caves, around 135 are still intact. While excavating the site, it was found that radioactive carbons of the site were dated to around the year 3rd century. Therefore, It can be assumed that the earliest caves date to the year 3rd century. It was also believed that the caves were abandoned around the beginning of the 8th century.

The Kizil caves can be categorized in three types: square caves, caves with large images, and monastic caves. It is recorded that around two-thirds of the caves are monastic caves or Viharas. These caves are used by the monks as living quarters and storehouses. These caves are found to be empty with no interior decorations.

The other caves were built with the central pillar design with the objective to circumambulate around the central column. This column was regarded as the stupa. In front of the column, a large vaulted chamber is placed. The cave also includes the smaller rear chamber behind of which has two tunnel-like corridors which link the spaces. It is assumed that the large chamber may have housed Buddha statue along with other statues which may be the focus of the interior. The rear chamber may house Buddhist arts: Buddha statue or the mural with parinirvana theme. But at present context, the pilgrims would not find any of these statues due to various reasons.

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Murals at Kizil caves

Murals at Kizil caves mostly depict Jataka stories, avadanas, and legends of the Buddha which were painted in three phases. The first two phases showed a lack of Chinese elements while the last phase showed Tang Chinese influences. The notable features of the murals in Kizil caves is the extensive use of blue pigments along with the ultramarine pigment derived from lapis lazuli from Afghanistan. Another characteristic of the murals is the division of murals into diamond-shaped blocks in the vault ceilings of the main room of many caves. In these diamond shapes, Buddhist scenes are depicted. These diamond shapes were painted on top of one another to show the narrative sequences of the scenes.

As it was mentioned in the text found in Kucha, the paintings were supported by a Tokharian king called Mendre with the suggestion from the high ranking monk of the kingdom, Anandavarman. It is also mentioned that the king ordered an Indian artist, Naravahanadatta, and a Syrian artist, Priyaratna to paint the murals. Not only the Tokharian king but neighboring Khotanese kings Vijayavardana and Murlimin also supported the project by sending the artists.

As with the statues, Murals at the caves were subjected to loot, damage and transfer to museums. Even with these acts, the Kizil caves still has around 5000 sq. meter of Buddhist wall painting remained. In 1906, the German expedition team of Albert Von Le Coq and Albert Grunwedel explored the Kizil Caves. Both had different purposes for the expedition, as for Grunwedel it was to copy the murals but for Von Le Coq it was to transfer the murals to other places. He took the murals and then placed most of the fragments in Museum of Asian Art in Dahlem, Berlin. Similarly, other explorers also took the murals and placed the murals in different museums in Russia, Japan, Korea, and the United States.

Longhua Temple

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Longhua Temple is a Buddhist Temple located in Shanghai, China. This temple preserves the architectural design of a song dynasty monastery of the Chan School. The Longhua Temple is the largest, most authentic and complete ancient temple complex which is dedicated to the Maitreya Buddha in the city of Shanghai.

Historical background of the Longhua Temple

The Longhua Temple was built in the mid 3rd century during the period of Three Kingdoms. As legend states that once Wu King, Sun Quan got the Sharira relics of Gautam Buddha. So, in order to houses this relic, the king ordered the fellow persons to construct the temple along with pagodas.

Later the temple was destroyed in the war and was again rebuilt in the Northern Song dynasty period with the style of Song dynasty architecture in the mid 10th century. Later in the Song dynasty in the mid 11th century Longhua temple was renamed as Kong Xiang Temple. The original name was restored only in the Ming dynasty during the reign of the Wanli Emperor. The temple was again renovated in the mid 20th century.

Architectural features of Longhua Temple

The Longhua Temple occupies an area of more than 20,000 sq. Meters. The main axis of the compound is 194 m long. The tallest structure is the Longhua Pagoda which stands at the height of 40.4 m

The temple consists of five halls which are built according to Sangharama Five-Hall Style of Buddhist Chan Sect. developed during Song dynasty. The five main halls are arranged along a central north-south axis. These five halls are Maitreya Hall, Heavenly King Hall, Grand Hall of Great Sage, Three Sages Hall, and Abbot's Hall.

Maitreya Hall: This hall houses statue of Maitreya Buddha.

Heavenly King Hall: This hall houses statues of the Four Heavenly Kings

Grand Hall of the Great Sage: This main hall is also called Mahavira Hall which houses Buddha statues and statue of his two disciples. This hall also houses carving of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara in his female manifestation. The hall also includes an ancient bell which was built in 1586 CE during the Wanli era of the Ming dynasty.

Three Sages Hall: This hall houses statues of Amitabha Buddha, Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, and Mahasthamaprapta.

Abbot's Hall: This hall is used for providing lectures and formal meetings.

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Another notable architecture of Longhua Temple is Longhua Pagoda, Bell Tower, and Library. As the halls are arranged in the central north-south axis, these mentioned architecture are arranged off the central axis.

The Longhua Pagoda is one of the best well-known 16 historic pagodas. The layout of this pagoda has an octagonal floor layout. The Pagoda has seven storey and the size decreases as we ascend upstairs. The pagoda consists of a hollow, tube-like brick core surrounded by a wooden staircase. As for the outer appearance of the Pagoda, the Pagoda is decorated with balconies, banisters, and beautifully upturned eaves. These outer decorations have been renovated by maintaining the original style.

The Bell Tower houses a copper bell cast in 1382. This bell is 2 m tall and has a maximum diameter of 1.3 m and weighs about 5 tons.

The Library houses various versions of Buddhist sutras and other Buddhist works, as well as Buddhist arts, ceremonial instruments, antiques, and artifacts.

The pagoda even after several renovations, existed on the same site where they were first built. The brick base and body of the pagoda was built in 977 under the Wuyue Kingdom. These pagodas were renovated continuously in order to maintain the aesthetic aspects of the pagoda. Even though the pagoda was renovated continuously, the pagoda is not open to the general public mainly due to the fragile wooden components and the age of the pagoda.

Buddhist arts in Myanmar

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In the previous post, it has already been mentioned that how Buddhism was spread in the south Asian countries and also how they slowly localized the Buddhist arts. The spread of Buddhism to other nation is mainly due to the efforts of Ashoka, the Great and also ancient silk trade route. With the help of trade route, Indian influences dominated most of the south Asian countries. They accepted the religion and almost all converted into Buddhism in the earlier period. They even started to build antique Buddha statues along with the antique Buddhist arts in the temples, caves built alongside the trade route. We also reviewed the development of Buddhist arts in one of the south Asian countries - Sri Lanka and in the present post, we will be reviewing the development of Buddhist arts in Myanmar.

Buddhist arts in Myanmar

It is recorded that the Mon Empire of southern Myanmar were converted to Buddhism at around 200 BCE under the supervision of the Indian king Ashoka, the Great. The conversion was before the division of Mahayana and Hinayana or Theravada Buddhism. With the conversion to Buddhism, the royal persons supported the construction of Buddha statues and as well as Buddhist arts at different places. These arts were highly influenced by the style of the Indian art of Gupta and post-Gupta periods. One of the earliest examples of Buddhist temple is Beikthano which was built between the periods of 1st and 5th centuries. Later with the expansion of Mon Empire between 5th and 8th centuries, they localized the Buddhist arts and then included local characteristics in Buddha Statue and arts. Slowly, at the 11th to 13th century, thousands of Buddhist temples were constructed at Bagan, the capital and also to the surrounding areas of Bagan. Out of which only around 2,000 temples are still standing in the current period. This was due to the different invasion that occurred in the past.

One of the notable points that was mesmerizing is even though there was an invasion by the Mongols in 1287 CE, the construction of the Buddha Statues and other forms of arts were constructed.

In between 14th to 16th centuries, the Ava (Innwa) style of the Buddha image was popular. This type of antique Buddhist art can be distinguished from others noticing few of the appearance of the Buddha. First, the Buddha has large protruding ears, exaggerated eyebrows that are curved upward with half closed eyes, thin lips and a hair bun which is pointed at the top. The image is usually portrayed in the bhumisparsa mudra.

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At the end of the 18th century, during the Konbaung dynasty, another style of art, Mandalay emerged. This style of arts in different than that of Innwa style. To be precise, this style of art has, more natural, fleshy face with naturally slanted eyebrows, slightly slanted eyes. The lips are thicker and have a round hair bun at the top. The Antique Buddha Statues constructed in this form of art are usually portrayed in reclining, standing or sitting posture. This form of art, Mandalay can be distinguished with Buddha statues having draped or flowing robes.

Another form of Buddhist art is Shan style evolved through Shan people of Myanmar. These people inhabit in the highlands of Myanmar. This style can be distinguished with the Buddha represented with an angular feature. The Buddha has a large and prominently pointed nose, hair bun tied similar to Thai styles and a small, thin mouth.

Therefore, Myanmar has seen a historical development of Buddhist art from the period of Mon Empire to present day. To be honest, each and every style-early Indian arts, Innwa style, Mandalay style, Shan style- that developed has unique features. At present time, Mandalay style of art remains popular than other forms of arts.

Buddhist arts in Sri Lanka

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If we look at the history, it has been recorded that when the sea connections was established between states near Mediterranean sea and China with India as the intermediary of choice, India started to grow its influences, through various sectors, towards southeast Asian countries. Therefore, trade routes linked with India were established in different south East Asian countries like- southern Burma, central and southern Siam, lower Cambodia and southern Vietnam, etc. With the establishment of the trade routes, Indian Influences were seen to other south East Asian countries along with the cultural transmission. It was recorded that the religion - Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism were spread out through transmission of sacred texts and Indian literature such as Ramayana and the Mahabharata. But the South Asian people accepted Buddhism rather than other religion and developed buddhist art in their respective countries with their own characteristics.

History of Buddhist art

During 1st-8th century, south Asian countries developed their own verse of buddhist arts which had a foundation in the Indian Gupta style. These type of antique buddhist arts can still be found throughout the area.

During the period of the 8th and 9th century, the special type of buddhist art, Sailendran buddhist art, was developed in Medang Mataram Kingdom of Central Java, Indonesia. In this period lots of buddhist arts were built and therefore it was marked as the renaissance of buddhist art in Java. Some of the arts were Kalasan, Manjusrigrha, Mendut and Borobudur stone mandala.

During the period of 9th - 13th centuries, south East Asian countries became very powerful empires. They were also active in creating and building Buddhist architects and images of Buddha and of those who are associated with buddhism. The two Empires - Sri Vijaya and Khmer Empire which were located at south and north respectively were very active on building the images and arts of Buddha. They both expressed the rich Mahayana concept of Buddhisms.

During the 13th century, the Theravada Buddhism of Pali canon was introduced and this sect. of Buddhism was followed by the newly founded ethnic Thai kingdom of Sukhothai. In this period, the monasteries were typically built at the central places to receive instructions and to clear out the disputes of the monks. From the 14th century onwards, Theravada Buddhism was continued to spread in Burma, Laos, and Cambodia.

It is also noted that Singhasari Buddhist art was also developed in the East Java section during the 13th century.

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Buddhist arts in Sri Lanka

As it has been noted that Buddhism was introduced in Sri Lanka in the 3rd century BCE by Buddhist missionaries sent by Mauryan Emperor Ashoka. In Sri Lanka, the first ever monastery built was the Mahavihara at Anuradhapura which was founded by Devanampiyatissa. This monastery helped to spread Buddhism throughout the area. Later the monastery became the center of the Theravada doctrine of Buddhism. Later another monastery, Abhayagiri Vihara, based on another doctrine of Buddhism, Mahayana, was established in BCE 89 by Vattagamani. With the establishment of Mahayana Buddhism in Sri Lanka, Theravada Buddhism many ideologies were contradicted with that of Mahayana Buddhism and hence there was a rivalry between the monks of both viharas. This conflict of ideas later helped to found another Vihara, Jetavanarama. Therefore, Buddhism in Sri Lanka was dominated by three monasteries- Mahavihara, Abhayagiri, and Jetavanarama. The monasteries built afterward were affiliated to one of the three mentioned above.

With the spread of Buddhism, the monks also built many antique Buddha statues and images depicting Buddha's teachings and his life history. These statues were mainly rock cut statues and bronze statues. Some of the rock cut antique Buddha statues are Aukana Buddha Statue, Maligawila Buddha Statue, Buduruwagala Raja Maha Viharaya, Rambadagalla Viharaya, Samadhi Buddha Statue, etc. and one of the famous Vihara, Kelaniya Raja Maha Vihara consists of the image of reclining Gautama Buddha which was painted by the artist Solias Mendis.

Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves

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Just like other thousand Buddha Caves, the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves is also a complex of Buddhist grottos which is located between the cities of Turpan and Shanshan (Loulan) at the north-east of the Taklamakan Desert near the ancient ruins of Gaochang in the Mutou Valley, a gorge in the Flaming Mountains, China. These grottoes are situated high on the cliffs of the west Mutou Valley. It is recorded that the construction of these grottoes was started from the 5th century and completed only in the 14th century, but most of the caves that existed in the current period were constructed during the west Uyghur kingdom around the 10th - 13th centuries.

Buddhist Uyghurs

Uyghurs were physically Mongoloid until they mixed with the Tarim Basin's original Indo-European Tocharian inhabitants as suggested by Professor James A. Millward. His explanation was supported by the images of Uyghur patrons housed at temple no. 9 in Bezeklik Caves. It was believed that the Buddhist Uyghur created Brezeklik buddhist arts or murals.

Another researcher, Peter B. Golden writes that the Uyghurs didn't only adopt the religious faiths of the Indo-European Sogdians, they also look them as mentors and followed them as Silk Road traders. This belief is supported by the image of Sogdians wearing silk robes as seen in the pranidhi scene of Bezeklik arts; Sogdians donating the Buddha in Scene 6 from Temple 9.

Albert von Le Coq, another imminent personality, who researched murals of Bezeklik. He suggested that the person in pranidhi scene who was kneeling and praying in front of the Buddha were Persian people with green eyes, wearing the green fur-trimmed coat.

During a ghazat, holy war, the Buddhist Uyghurs of the Kingdom of Qocho and Turfan were converted to Islam by Muslim Chagatai Khanate ruler, Khizr Khoja. After being converted to Islam, the descendants of the previously Buddhist Uyghurs in Turfan believed that instead of their ancestors, Infidel Kalmuks were the people who built Buddhist monuments in their area. This belief was developed since they were not able to retain the memory of their ancestral legacy.

Buddhist art at the Bezeklik grottoes

It is recorded that there are around 77 rock-cut caves at this grottoes. Most of the caves at the grottoes have rectangular space and rounded ceilings. The ceilings were divided into four sections, and each section consists of antique Buddhist arts painted on the ceilings. Therefore we can see hundreds of Buddhist arts painted all over the ceiling and walls of the grottoes. Some murals, Buddhist arts painted over the wall or the ceiling, shows a large Painting of Buddha which is surrounded by other figures, including Turks, Indians, and Europeans. Regarding about the quality of the murals, there are various quality murals from nave to the masterpieces. One of the masterpiece Buddhist art of Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves is large sized "Pranidhi Scene" which portrays Sakyamuni Buddha's promise or pranidhi from his past life.

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Due to the Muslim conquest and also Muslim population, the Buddhists arts found inside of the caves have suffered heavy damage. It was recorded that the local Muslim people in that period, also had destroyed the images and arts installed in the cave. The locals also took out the pieces of murals which were used as fertilizer. It was only after late 19th century many explorers visited this place and found the Buddha statues, in pieces and in single, and murals, later they took those artifacts to their homelands. Albert von Le Coq, a German explorer, had also collected some of the best murals, like- large pieces of pranidhi scene which later was sent to Germany and then fixed to the walls in Museum of Ethnology in Berlin. During the Second World War, this Buddhist art was also destroyed along with the Museum when bombarded. But still, other parts of this mural are safely stored in other Museum of the world.

This thousand cave still has its charm and lots of people visits here just to see the magnificent antique Buddha statues and buddhist arts even though most of its parts were destroyed in ancient times.

Mandala in Buddhism: An Introduction

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A Mandala literally means circle and has its own meaning in Hinduism and Buddhism. This usually represents the universe. In the present context, the word mandala is used as a term for any diagrams that represent cosmos metaphysically or symbolically, a microcosm of the universe.

We can see mandala in monasteries, included in Thangka paintings and most of all it is highly demanded due to in symbolic representation of different Buddhists Sutras. Therefore, mandala is also regarded as Buddhist art even though it is equally important in other religions.

Mandala in Buddhism

During the time of Siddhartha Gautama Buddha, there was not division. Every follower and disciples follow the path that Siddhartha Gautama Buddha showed towards the enlightenment. But after the death of Siddhartha Gautama Buddha, slowly the sangha was scattered and then there were many forms of Buddhism. Every sect has their own practices towards the enlightenment but the core teachings are that of Siddhartha Gautama Buddha. Hence, even though they are separated, they are united. So the basic sect of Buddhism, to name few, is Theravada Buddhism, Shingon Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Nichiren Buddhism, and Pure Land Buddhism. These all sect of Buddhism focuses on one thing and that is enlightenment but the way of obtaining enlightenment is different. Hence, it is obvious that the culture that they have been cultivating is also different and it has influenced the making of the mandala as well.

Theravada Buddhism

In Theravada Buddhism, the use of mandalas are not well known but someone does build in the form of the stupa. The mandala can also be seen in the ancient scriptures like Atanatiya Sutta, Digha Nikaya, and Pali Canon.

Tibetan Buddhism

Tibetan Buddhism or Vajranayana Buddhism is a branch of Manayan Budddhism. In Tibetan Buddhism, Mandala has been developed as a sand painting and as well as thangka painting. Mandala are also a part of Anuttarayoga Tantra Practices.

In Tibetan Buddhism, the Mandala is regarded as a safeguard place which is separated and protected from the impure outer world. Thus, it is regarded as a Buddha field or a place of Nirvana.

The Mandala is also regarded as a support for the meditation. While meditating, the person focuses on the image of the mandala such that it becomes fully internalized in even minutest detail. It then can be summoned at will with a clear and vivid visualized image. Hence, the Mandalas are used as an aid to meditation by tantric Buddhists

Another practice in Tibetan Buddhism is Mandala Offering. A Mandala offering is a symbolic offering of the entire universe. This practice was taught by Siddhartha Gautama Buddha and is believed that the results of Mandala offering are ultimate happiness and enlightenment.

Shingon Buddhism

Shingon Buddhism is also a branch of Mahayana Buddhism which is practiced in Japan. In Shingon Buddhism, the mandala is frequently used mainly in its rituals though it differs with the mandala of other Buddhism. It is said that when Kukai, founder of Shingon Buddhism, returned to Japan from his training in China, he had brought two mandalas with him- The Mandala of the Womb Realm, and the Mandala of the Diamond Realm. Now, these two mandalas have become central to the ritual of the Shingon Buddhism. Mainly these two Mandalas are used in the Abhiseka initiation ritual. During the initial ritual, a new student is blindfolded and they are asked to throw a flower. Now, the flower will decide which sect should follow.

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Nichiren Buddhism

Nichiren Buddhism is a branch of Mahayana Buddhism which is also practice in Japan. This sect of Buddhism was founded by Japanese Priest Nichiren in the 13th century. In Nichiren Buddhism, the Mandala is called mojj-mandala which is the paper hanging scroll and it consists of Chinese Characters and medieval Sanskrit script. These scripts represent elements of the Buddha's enlightenment, Protective Buddhist deities, and certain Buddhist concepts. The first mojj-mandala is Gohandon which is inscribed by Priest Nichiren himself.

Pure Land Buddhism

Pure Land Buddhism is one of the branches of Mahayana Buddhism. It is one of the widely practiced traditions of Buddhism in East Asia which focuses on the tradition of Amitabha Buddha's teachings. The three primary texts of this tradition are- "Longer Sukhavativyuha Sutra", "Shorter Sukhavativyuha Sutra", "Amitayurdhyana Sutra". Hence, the mandalas in this Buddhism graphically represents Pure Lands as described by the above-mentioned sutras. Therefore, the mandalas are generally used as a teaching aid. It is not used as a medium of meditation as used by Vajrayana Buddhism. The famous Mandala in Japan is Taima Mandala which is based upon Amitayrudhyana Sutra or Contemplation Sutra. It was made on 763 CE.

Apart from graphical representation of Pure Lands, in Jodo Shinshu Buddhism (a branch of Pure Land Buddhism), Japanese Monk Shinran and his disciple, Rennyo designed a mandala with the words of nembutsu- Namu Amida Butsu- using a hanging scroll in order to create an object of reverence for the lower classes of Japanese society. This type of mandala is placed by Jodo Shinshu Buddhists in homes and butsudan, even today.

Thangka Painting: a Buddhist Art

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Thangka painting is a Tibetan Buddhist art made on a cotton. This painting usually depict a Buddhist deity, mandala or any scene. Silk is added at the side of the painting in order to look nice and to preserve as well. Typically, Thangka paintings are unframed and when they are not on display, they are stored by rolling up. Since the painting can be scrolled, it is also called scroll painting. Due to the material, the Thangka painting should be stored in dry places. When stored in cool and damp places, the Thangka painting may be worse because of Silk. Most of the people treat the painting with several different techniques in order to preserve well. The sizes of the Thangka painting vary. There are relatively small sized Thangkas as well as extremely large sized. The small sized one is not meant for exhibition, they are for the personal use while larger ones are meant for display for brief periods of time especially during the festivals. Normally, these large paintings are stored in monasteries or Museums.

For e.g. the world largest Thangka Painting, made by artists of 16 different countries, was exhibited to mark 60th anniversary Nepal Japan diplomatic relation. This Buddhist art was of 70 m length and 50 m breadth which portrays life cycle of Lord Gautam Buddha. Currently it is stored in Japan. Likewise, there is a Buddhist festival called Samyak in Nepal where different Antique Buddha Statues of Dipankar Buddha, Thangka Painting are displayed at the Bhuikhel, foothills of Swoyambhu Stupa.

Thangka painting composition

Normally, Thangka painting has central deity in the center of the painting which is usually placed inside the shrine. The central deity is surrounded by other deity made in a smaller size in comparison to the central deity and they are usually drawn at the sides. The background is usually filled with natural elements. Other than to represent the deity, it is also used to show the life history of Gautama Buddha and his teachings.

Importance of Thangka Painting

Particularly, Thangka painting has different values in itself. First, the Thangka painting serves as teaching tools since most of the Thangka painting depict life history of Siddhartha Gautama Buddha, myths associated with other deities and bodhisattvas. The teaching of Siddhartha Gautama Buddha are also depicted in the Thangka painting. One of them is "Wheel of Life" which is not only drawn in the paintings but also depicted in the walls of the monasteries so that the persons will have the idea about how life really works. Therefore the Lamas and other Buddhist teachers uses Thangka painting in order to impart the knowledge.

Second, the Thangka Paintings also serves as a meditational tool. The Buddhist Vajrayana practitioner visualizes him/ herself as being the deity represented in the Thangka painting, thereby internalizes the Buddha qualities.

Third, the Thangka Paintings also serves as the icon during a ritual or ceremony. They are often used as a mediums through which the person offers prayer.

Fourth, it is believed that Thangka Paintings brings positive energy, and fosters cool and calm environment when it is hung in the walls. So most of the people place this Buddhist art in their bedrooms, common rooms, and Offices.

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Origin of Thangka painting

It is believed that the origins of Buddhists Art in Tibet were initiated only after Bhrikuti married to Tibetan King Songtsan Gampo. It is recorded that many Antique Buddha Statues, Buddhists Arts, and Newari craftsmen were given to Bhrikuti as a part of the dowry. Another account of the transfer of artistic knowledge was when Arniko was invited to Tibet to build the golden stupa, then by Kublai Khan to decorate his courtyard. Arniko also took other artists to work with him. Therefore, the Buddhist arts, images found in Tibet and China have a lot of similarities with that of arts and images found in Nepal. Therefore it is said that Tibetan Thangka Painting has its origin in Paubha Painting made by Newari Caste of Nepal.

Even though it is named as Tibetan Thangka Painting, most of the painting have been drawn in Nepal. People from different castes like, Sherpa, Gurung, Tamang, Magar of Nepal have been involved in making Thangkas and supporting their families. These works are exported to west and Buddhist Country.